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During World War II, the first '''computers''' (electronic machines that perform numerical calculations far faster than humans) were developed by the British and U. S. governments as a result of secret military projects<ref name="Colossus">{{cite web|url=http://www.picotech.com/applications/colossus.html|title=Colossus: The World’s First Electronic Computer|publisher=Pico Technology|year=date_not_specified|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref><ref name="Eniac">{{cite web|url=http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~museum/|title=The ENIAC Museum Online|publisher=University of Pennsylvania School or Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS)|year=date_unspecified|accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref>.  These first computers did not remain secret for long; they were adopted by private industry, and they quickly grew in usefulness while decreasing in size and cost.  Today, computers are ubiquitous household objects, perhaps unrecognized in the form of a tiny microprocessor embedded in a gadget such as a phone or a TV remote. Even defining the word ''computer'' may spark a debate, because so many different kinds of computers exist, and they are used for so many different kinds of activities.
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The [[history of computing]] is complex.  The desire for easy obtainable results for ever more complex computations had existed for a long time, but technology was net yet advanced enough to realize a practicle solution for that.  People had hankered after mechanical devices to help with mathematical calculations, inventing the [[abacus]]<ref name="Abacus">{{cite web|url=http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=320962|title=Origin and Development of the Chinese Abacus|publisher=Journal of the ACM (JACM)  Volume 6 ,  Issue 1 (January 1959)  Pages: 102 - 110|year=1959|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>, the [[slide rule]]<ref name="SlideRule">{{cite web|url=http://www.oughtred.org/history-new.shtml|title=Slide Rule History by the Oughtred Society|year=2006|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>, and a host of mechanical [[adding machine]]s<ref name="AddingMachine">{{cite web|url=http://www.hpmuseum.org/adder.htm|title=Adding Machines by The Museum of HP Calculators, text and images Copyright David G. Hicks, 1995 - 2005|year=2005|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>.  But the electronic computer's rapid evolution forever changed [[science]], the [[military]], and [[business]].  The computer has vastly expanded human ability to store and share [[information]]; as such, its invention may be a milestone for humanity on a par with the advent of [[writing]] and materials to write on (millennia ago)<ref name="Paper">{{cite web|url=http://www.wipapercouncil.org/invention.htm|title=The Invention of Paper Copyright © 2004 Wisconsin Paper Council|year=2004|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>, or with the invention of the [[printing press]] (~1450)<ref name="PrintingPress">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/press.html|title=The Printing Press by The History Guide copyright © 2000 Steven Kreis|year=2004|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>. Not all of this may be regarded as positive, however; the explosive intrusion in life of the computer in all its facets is sometimes referred to as the [[digital revolution]]<ref name="DigRef">{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/transition/subs/demointro.html|title=The Digital Revolution, the Informed Citizen, and the Culture of Democracy by Henry Jenkins and David Thorburn (from the introduction to Democracy and New Media, Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003)|publisher=MIT Press|
The electronic [[computer]], dating from the middle of the twentieth century, vastly expanded human ability to store and share [[information]]. As such, the invention of the computer may be a milestone for humanity on a par with the advent of [[writing]] and materials to write on (millennia ago)<ref name="Paper">{{cite web|url=http://www.wipapercouncil.org/invention.htm|title=The Invention of Paper Copyright © 2004 Wisconsin Paper Council|year=2004|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>, or with the invention of the [[printing press]] (~1450)<ref name="PrintingPress">{{cite web|url=http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/press.html|title=The Printing Press by The History Guide copyright © 2000 Steven Kreis|year=2004|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>. The computer has forever changed how people live, how [[scientific research]] is conducted, the [[military]] weaponry available, and [[business]] practices. Today, computers are ubiquitous household objects, perhaps unrecognized in the form of a tiny microprocessor embedded in a gadget such as a phone or a TV remote. Even defining the word ''computer'' may spark a debate, because so many different kinds of computers exist, and they are used for so many different kinds of activities. The [[history of computing]] is very complex and thus deserves its own article.
year=2003|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>.


==The nature of computing==
==The nature of computing==
Some people define a computer as a [[machine]] for manipulating structured [[data]] according to [[instruction (computer science)|instructions]] known as a [[computer program|program]].   However, this definition may only make sense to people who already know what a computer can do. Computers are extremely versatile. In fact, they are ''universal'' information-processing machines, but at the deepest level, what they really do is perform [[arithmetic]]. Computers and mathematics are closely related. The [[theory of computation]] is a branch of mathematics, and its evolution, pioneered by brilliant twentieth-century mathematians such as [[Alan Turing]] (among many others), enabled the invention of electronic computers. And as usual in [[mathematics]], their work built on that of earlier mathematicians as described in the [[history of computing]].
For some people, a [[machine]] that manipulates [[data]] according to [[instruction (computer science)|instructions]] known as a [[computer program|program]] is the definition of 'computer'. However, this definition may only make sense to people who already know what a computer can do. Computers are extremely versatile. In fact, they are ''universal'' information-processing machines, but at the deepest level, what they really do is perform [[arithmetic]]. Computers and mathematics are closely related. The [[theory of computation]] is a branch of mathematics, and its evolution, pioneered by brilliant twentieth-century mathematicians such as [[Alan Turing]] (among many others), enabled the invention of electronic computers. And as usual in [[mathematics]], their work built on that of earlier mathematicians as described in the [[history of computing]].


Today, most computers do arithmetic using the [[binary number system]], because a binary number can be represented by an array of on-off [[switch]]es, with each 0 or 1 digit, or [[bit]], stored in one switch.  In early electronic computers, the switches used for each digit were electromagnetic switches, also called relays. Later, [[vacuum tube]]s replaced electronic relays, and eventually [[transistor]]s replaced both relays and tubes. Transisters can now be manufactured as tiny devices, almost molecular in size, embedded within [[silicon]] [[chips]]. These tiny transistorized computers work on the same principles as the first, giant relay and vacuum tube based computers (which occupied entire buildings)<ref name="TransistorVacuumtube">{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circuit/history/|title=The History of the Integrated Circuit: The Transistor vs. the Vacuum Tube (The Nobel Foundation) Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007 |year=2007|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>. More information on how electronic computers work is available in [[computer architecture]].
Today, most computers do arithmetic using the [[binary numeral system]], because a binary number can be represented by an array of on-off [[Electronic_switch|switches]], with each 0 or 1 digit, or [[Binary_numeral_system#Use_in_computing|bit]], stored in one switch.  In early electronic computers, the switches used for each digit were electromagnetic switches, also called relays. Later, [[Electronic switch#vacuum tube|vacuum tubes]] replaced electronic relays, and eventually [[Electronic switch#Transistor|transistors]] replaced both relays and tubes. Transistors can now be manufactured as tiny devices, almost molecular in size, embedded within [[Integrated circuit|silicon chips]]. These tiny transistorized computers work on the same principles as the first, giant relay and vacuum tube based computers (which occupied entire buildings)<ref name="TransistorVacuumtube">{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/integrated_circuit/history/|title=The History of the Integrated Circuit: The Transistor vs. the Vacuum Tube (The Nobel Foundation) Copyright © Nobel Web AB 2007 |year=2007|accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>. More information on how electronic computers work is available in [[computer architecture]].


Initially, mathematicians and scientists were the only users of computers. But today, what we tend to think of as a computer consists not only of the underlying hardware, with its limited [[instruction set]] that performs arithmetic, but also an [[operating system]], which is a set of programs which allow people to use the computer more easily. The [[operating system]] is [[software]] (programs running on a computer).   Without an operating system, a computer is not useful; the operating system helps people to write new programs for the computer and to perform many other activities on a computer.
Initially, mathematicians and scientists were the only users of computers. But today, what we tend to think of as a computer consists not only of the underlying hardware, with its limited [[instruction set]] that performs arithmetic, but also an [[operating system]], which is a set of programs which allow people to use the computer more easily. The [[operating system]] is [[software]] (programs running on a computer). Without an operating system, a computer is not useful; the operating system helps people to write new programs for the computer and to perform many other activities on a computer.


==Academia and professional societies==
==Academia and professional societies==
 
Since the early 1980s, most universities have offered majors in academic disciplines such as [[computer science]] or [[computer engineering]], devoted to the design of hardware and software for computers. These general fields of study soon came to consist of many sub-fields. In addition, most academic disciplines, and most businesses, use computers as tools.  
Since the early 1980's, most universities have offered majors in academic disciplines such as [[computer science]] or [[computer engineering]], devoted to the design of hardware and software for computers. These general fields of study soon came to consist of many sub-fields. In addition, most academic disciplines, and most businesses, use computers as tools.  


Below are some of the professional and academic disciplines that teach the techniques to construct, program, and use computers.  There is often overlap of functions and terminology across these categories:
Below are some of the professional and academic disciplines that teach the techniques to construct, program, and use computers.  There is often overlap of functions and terminology across these categories:
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*[[software engineering]] (management of the process of creating complex [[software]] systems)
*[[software engineering]] (management of the process of creating complex [[software]] systems)


Professional societies dedicated to computers include the [http://www.bcs.org British Computer Society], the [http://www.acm.org Association for Computing Machinery] (ACM) and the [http://www.computer.org IEEE Computer Society].
Professional societies dedicated to computers include the [http://www.bcs.org British Computer Society], the [http://www.acm.org Association for Computing Machinery] (ACM), the [http://www.computer.org IEEE Computer Society] and the German [http://gi-ev.de/english/ Gesellschaft für Informatik e.V.] (GI).


==The economics of the computer industry==
==The economics of the computer industry==
Since the 1950's, a vigorous cycle of business activity has arisen from the development of computers, including many corporations engaged in creating computer [[hardware]], [[operating system]]s, or other [[software]]. The business climate has evolved rapidly along with the technology, with some companies being born and meeting their demise in rapid succession, while other companies survived for decades (though usually by changing their focus rapidly in response to industry growth).   
Since the 1950s, a vigorous cycle of business activity has arisen from the development of computers, including many corporations engaged in creating computer [[hardware]], [[operating system]]s, or other [[software]]. The business climate has evolved rapidly along with the technology, with some companies being born and meeting their demise in rapid succession, while other companies survived for decades (though usually by changing their focus rapidly in response to industry growth).   


===The importance of standards===
===The importance of standards===
The ability of many different companies to make computer parts, hardware or software, comes from industry-wide adoption of [[standards]].  Various [[consortium]]s and United States or international standards organizations serve as arbitrators of computing standards, including [[ANSI]], [[WC3]], [[ECMA]] and [[ISO]]. In addition to formal standards, many informal standards have arisen due to consumer "voting" by purchasing certain products.  The first written standards arose from the Internet Engineering Taskforse (IETF)<ref name="IETF">{{cite web|url=http://www.garykessler.net/library/ietf_hx.html|title="IETF: History, Background, and Role in Today's Internet"|publisher=Gary C. Kessler|year=1996|accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref>, born in the late 1960's as a result of the U. S. Defense Advanced Reseach ([[DARPA]]) initiative, and leading eventually to the development of the [[internet]].  The open nature of the IETF, in which any person could submit a proposal (called a Request for Comment, or [[RFC]]) was remarkable, and the IETF proved to be about as effective as formally endorsed standards bodies at creating usable and widely adopted standards.  The non-proprietary nature of the [[RFC]] process also foreshadowed the later development, in the 1980's, of the [[open source software]] movement.  Some standards also resulted from a deliberate sharing of specifications by industry participants, notably the open specifications leading to the industry-wide [[IBM compatible PC]] beginning in the early 1980's.
The ability of many different companies to make computer parts, hardware or software, comes from industry-wide adoption of [[standards]].  Various [[consortium]]s and United States or international standards organizations serve as arbitrators of computing standards, including [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI), [[World Wide Web Consortium]] ([[W3C]]), [[European Computer Networking Association]] (ECMA) and [[International Organization for Standardization]] ([[ISO]]). In addition to formal standards, many informal standards have arisen due to consumer "voting" by purchasing certain products.   


===Pace of growth (Moore's law)===
The first written standards for the [[Internet]], as well as the [[ARPANET]], [[NSFNET]], and other research arose from the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (originally the ''Network Working Group'') (IETF)<ref name="IETF">{{cite web|url=http://www.garykessler.net/library/ietf_hx.html|title="IETF: History, Background, and Role in Today's Internet"|publisher=Gary C. Kessler|year=1996|accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref>, born in the late 1960s as a result of the U. S. [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]] ([[ARPA]]) initiative, and leading eventually to the development of the [[Internet]]. The open nature of the IETF, in which any person could submit a proposal (called a [[Request for Comments]], or ''RFC'') was remarkable, and the IETF proved to be as or more effective as formally endorsed standards bodies at creating usable and widely adopted standards. The non-proprietary nature of the RFC process also foreshadowed the later development, in the 1980's, of the [[open source software]] movement.  
The quick pace of growth in computer engineering was codified into a widely quoted rule of thumb, called [[Moore%27s_Law|Moore's law]]<ref name="MooresLaw">{{cite web|url=http://www.intel.com/technology/mooreslaw/|title=Moore's Law © Intel Corporation|publisher=[[Intel]] Corporation|year=date_unknown|accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref>, first publicized by Gordon Moore (for many years CEO of [[Intel]]).  For decades after the invention of the computer, this economic boom centered in the United States, but beginning in the 1990's, it also spread rapidly overseas, especially into [[Europe]], [[China]] and [[India]].  Computers are now a world-wide phenomenon.


Some standards also resulted from a deliberate sharing of specifications by industry participants, notably the open specifications leading to the industry-wide [[IBM compatible PC]] beginning in the early 1980's.
===Pace of growth and value===
The quick pace of growth in computer engineering was codified into a widely quoted rule of thumb, called [[Moore's law]]<ref name="MooresLaw">{{cite web|url=http://www.intel.com/technology/mooreslaw/|title=Moore's Law © Intel Corporation|publisher=[[Intel]] Corporation|year=date_unknown|accessdate=2007-04-23}}</ref>, first publicized by Gordon Moore (for many years CEO of [[Intel]]). For decades after the invention of the computer, this economic boom centered in the United States and led to the widespread availability of [[personal computer|personal computers]] (affordable by individuals) in the 1980s. Beginning in the 1990s, the computer industry also spread rapidly overseas, especially into [[Europe]], Russia, China and [[India]].  Computers are now a world-wide phenomenon.
Related rules have been defined for [[value of networks]].
==References==
==References==
<references/>
{{reflist|2}}
 
[[Category:CZ Live]]
[[Category:Computers Workgroup]]
[[Category:Mathematics Workgroup]]

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The electronic computer, dating from the middle of the twentieth century, vastly expanded human ability to store and share information. As such, the invention of the computer may be a milestone for humanity on a par with the advent of writing and materials to write on (millennia ago)[1], or with the invention of the printing press (~1450)[2]. The computer has forever changed how people live, how scientific research is conducted, the military weaponry available, and business practices. Today, computers are ubiquitous household objects, perhaps unrecognized in the form of a tiny microprocessor embedded in a gadget such as a phone or a TV remote. Even defining the word computer may spark a debate, because so many different kinds of computers exist, and they are used for so many different kinds of activities. The history of computing is very complex and thus deserves its own article.

The nature of computing

For some people, a machine that manipulates data according to instructions known as a program is the definition of 'computer'. However, this definition may only make sense to people who already know what a computer can do. Computers are extremely versatile. In fact, they are universal information-processing machines, but at the deepest level, what they really do is perform arithmetic. Computers and mathematics are closely related. The theory of computation is a branch of mathematics, and its evolution, pioneered by brilliant twentieth-century mathematicians such as Alan Turing (among many others), enabled the invention of electronic computers. And as usual in mathematics, their work built on that of earlier mathematicians as described in the history of computing.

Today, most computers do arithmetic using the binary numeral system, because a binary number can be represented by an array of on-off switches, with each 0 or 1 digit, or bit, stored in one switch. In early electronic computers, the switches used for each digit were electromagnetic switches, also called relays. Later, vacuum tubes replaced electronic relays, and eventually transistors replaced both relays and tubes. Transistors can now be manufactured as tiny devices, almost molecular in size, embedded within silicon chips. These tiny transistorized computers work on the same principles as the first, giant relay and vacuum tube based computers (which occupied entire buildings)[3]. More information on how electronic computers work is available in computer architecture.

Initially, mathematicians and scientists were the only users of computers. But today, what we tend to think of as a computer consists not only of the underlying hardware, with its limited instruction set that performs arithmetic, but also an operating system, which is a set of programs which allow people to use the computer more easily. The operating system is software (programs running on a computer). Without an operating system, a computer is not useful; the operating system helps people to write new programs for the computer and to perform many other activities on a computer.

Academia and professional societies

Since the early 1980s, most universities have offered majors in academic disciplines such as computer science or computer engineering, devoted to the design of hardware and software for computers. These general fields of study soon came to consist of many sub-fields. In addition, most academic disciplines, and most businesses, use computers as tools.

Below are some of the professional and academic disciplines that teach the techniques to construct, program, and use computers. There is often overlap of functions and terminology across these categories:

Professional societies dedicated to computers include the British Computer Society, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the IEEE Computer Society and the German Gesellschaft für Informatik e.V. (GI).

The economics of the computer industry

Since the 1950s, a vigorous cycle of business activity has arisen from the development of computers, including many corporations engaged in creating computer hardware, operating systems, or other software. The business climate has evolved rapidly along with the technology, with some companies being born and meeting their demise in rapid succession, while other companies survived for decades (though usually by changing their focus rapidly in response to industry growth).

The importance of standards

The ability of many different companies to make computer parts, hardware or software, comes from industry-wide adoption of standards. Various consortiums and United States or international standards organizations serve as arbitrators of computing standards, including American National Standards Institute (ANSI), World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), European Computer Networking Association (ECMA) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In addition to formal standards, many informal standards have arisen due to consumer "voting" by purchasing certain products.

The first written standards for the Internet, as well as the ARPANET, NSFNET, and other research arose from the Internet Engineering Task Force (originally the Network Working Group) (IETF)[4], born in the late 1960s as a result of the U. S. Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) initiative, and leading eventually to the development of the Internet. The open nature of the IETF, in which any person could submit a proposal (called a Request for Comments, or RFC) was remarkable, and the IETF proved to be as or more effective as formally endorsed standards bodies at creating usable and widely adopted standards. The non-proprietary nature of the RFC process also foreshadowed the later development, in the 1980's, of the open source software movement.

Some standards also resulted from a deliberate sharing of specifications by industry participants, notably the open specifications leading to the industry-wide IBM compatible PC beginning in the early 1980's.

Pace of growth and value

The quick pace of growth in computer engineering was codified into a widely quoted rule of thumb, called Moore's law[5], first publicized by Gordon Moore (for many years CEO of Intel). For decades after the invention of the computer, this economic boom centered in the United States and led to the widespread availability of personal computers (affordable by individuals) in the 1980s. Beginning in the 1990s, the computer industry also spread rapidly overseas, especially into Europe, Russia, China and India. Computers are now a world-wide phenomenon.

Related rules have been defined for value of networks.

References